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How Was Eurocentrism Used By Imperial Countries To Justify Controlling Colonies Around The World?

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Worldview centred on or biased towards Western civilisation

Eurocentrism (besides Eurocentricity or Western-centrism)[1] is a worldview that is centered on Western civilization or a biased view that favors it over non-Western civilizations. The exact scope of Eurocentrism varies from the entire Western world to merely the continent of Europe or fifty-fifty more narrowly, to Western Europe (especially during the Cold War). When the term is applied historically, information technology may be used in reference to an apologetic stance toward European colonialism and other forms of imperialism.[two]

The term "Eurocentrism" dates back to the late 1970s but it did not become prevalent until the 1990s, when it was ofttimes practical in the context of decolonisation and development and humanitarian aid that industrialised countries offered to developing countries. The term has since been used to critique Western narratives of progress, Western scholars who take downplayed and ignored not-Western contributions, and to contrast Western epistemologies with Indigenous ways of knowing.[3] [4] [5]

Terminology [edit]

Eurocentrism equally the term for an ideology was coined by Samir Amin in the 1970s

The adjective Eurocentric, or Europe-centric, has been in use in diverse contexts since at to the lowest degree the 1920s.[6] The term was popularised (in French equally européocentrique) in the context of decolonisation and internationalism in the mid-20th century.[7] English usage of Eurocentric every bit an ideological term in identity politics was current past the mid-1980s.[8]

The abstract noun Eurocentrism (French eurocentrisme, earlier europocentrisme) as the term for an ideology was coined in the 1970s by the Egyptian Marxian economist Samir Amin, then manager of the African Institute for Economic Evolution and Planning of the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa.[9] Amin used the term in the context of a global, cadre-periphery or dependency model of capitalist development. English usage of Eurocentrism is recorded by 1979.[ten]

The coinage of Western-centrism is younger, attested in the late 1990s, and specific to English language.[11]

History [edit]

European exceptionalism [edit]

During the European colonial era, encyclopaedias often sought to requite a rationale for the predominance of European rule during the colonial menses by referring to a special position taken past Europe compared to the other continents.

Thus Johann Heinrich Zedler, in 1741, wrote that "even though Europe is the smallest of the world'due south 4 continents, it has for various reasons a position that places it before all others.... Its inhabitants have fantabulous community, they are courteous and erudite in both sciences and crafts".[12]

The Brockhaus Enzyklopädie (Conversations-Lexicon) of 1847 still expressed an ostensibly Eurocentric approach and claimed nigh Europe that "its geographical situation and its cultural and political significance is clearly the most important of the 5 continents, over which it has gained a most influential authorities both in material and even more than and so in cultural aspects".[13]

European exceptionalism thus grew out of the Great Divergence of the Early Modern period, due to the combined effects of the Scientific Revolution, the Commercial Revolution, and the rise of colonial empires, the Industrial Revolution and a Second European colonisation wave.

European exceptionalism is widely reflected in popular genres of literature, especially in literature for young adults (for example, Rudyard Kipling's 1901 novel Kim [ citation needed ]) and in adventure-literature in full general. Portrayal of European colonialism in such literature has been analysed in terms of Eurocentrism in retrospect, such as presenting idealised and often exaggeratedly masculine Western heroes, who conquered "savage" peoples in the remaining "dark spaces" of the globe.[14]

The European miracle, a term coined by Eric Jones in 1981,[fifteen] refers to the surprising rise of Europe during the Early Modern menstruum. During the 15th to 18th centuries, a great departure took place, comprising the European Renaissance, the European age of discovery, the germination of European colonial empires, the Age of Reason, and the associated spring forward in technology and the development of capitalism and early industrialisation. As a result, by the 19th century European powers dominated world trade and world politics.

In Lectures on the Philosophy of History, published in 1837, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel saw world history as starting in Asia but shifting to Hellenic republic and Italian republic, and then due north of the Alps to France, Frg and England.[sixteen] [17] Hegel interpreted India and China as stationary countries, defective inner momentum. Hegel's Mainland china replaced the existent historical evolution with a stock-still, stable scenario, which made it the outsider of world history. Both Republic of india and China were waiting and anticipating a combination of certain factors from outside until they ccould acquire real progress in human culture.[18] Hegel's ideas had a profound touch on western historiography and attitudes. Some scholars disagree with his ideas that the Oriental countries were exterior of world history.[xix]

Max Weber (1864-1920) suggested that capitalism is the speciality of Europe, considering Oriental countries such as India and People's republic of china do not incorporate the factors which would enable them to develop commercialism in a sufficient manner.[20] [ need quotation to verify ] Weber wrote and published many treatises in which he emphasized the distinctiveness of Europe. In The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism (1905), he wrote that the "rational" capitalism, manifested past its enterprises and mechanisms, only appeared in the Protestant western countries, and a series of generalised and universal cultural phenomena just announced in the w.[21]

Fifty-fifty the state, with a written constitution and a authorities organised by trained administrators and constrained by rational law, only appears in the W, even though other regimes tin also comprise states.[22] ("Rationality" is a multi-layered term whose connotations are developed and escalated as with the social progress. Weber regarded rationality equally a proprietary article for western backer gild.)

Journalists detected Eurocentrism in reactions to Russia's "special military operation" in Ukraine in Feb 2022, when the depth and scope of coverage and concern contrasted with (for instance) that devoted to longer-running, bloodier and more vicious contemporary wars outside Europe in Syria and in Yemen.[23]

Anticolonialism [edit]

Fifty-fifty in the 19th century, anticolonial movements had developed claims about national traditions and values that were set against those of Europe in Africa and India. In some cases, equally Red china, where local ideology was even more exclusionist than the Eurocentric 1, Westernisation did non overwhelm longstanding Chinese attitudes to its own cultural centrality.[24]

Orientalism developed in the belatedly 18th century as a disproportionate Western interest in and idealisation of Eastern (i.e. Asian) cultures.

By the early 20th century, some historians, such every bit Arnold J. Toynbee, were attempting to construct multifocal models of world civilisations. Toynbee also drew attention in Europe to non-European historians, such equally the medieval Tunisian scholar Ibn Khaldun. He likewise established links with Asian thinkers, such every bit through his dialogues with Daisaku Ikeda of Soka Gakkai International.[25]

The explicit concept of Eurocentrism is a production of the catamenia of decolonisation in the 1960s to 1970s. Its original context is the cadre-periphery or dependency model of capitalist development of Marxian economics.[ commendation needed ]

Contend since 1990s [edit]

Eurocentrism has been a peculiarly important concept in development studies.[26] Brohman (1995) argued that Eurocentrism "perpetuated intellectual dependence on a restricted group of prestigious Western academic institutions that determine the subject area matter and methods of research".[26]

In treatises on historical or contemporary Eurocentrism that appeared since the 1990s, Eurocentrism is more often than not bandage in terms of dualisms such every bit civilised/barbaric or advanced/backward, developed/undeveloped, core/periphery, implying "evolutionary schemas through which societies inevitably progress", with a remnant of an "underlying presumption of a superior white Western self as referent of assay" (640[ clarification needed ]).[27] Eurocentrism and the dualistic properties that it labels on not-European countries, cultures and persons have oftentimes been criticised in the political discourse of the 1990s and 2000s, particularly in the greater context of political correctness, race in the United States and affirmative action.[28] [29]

In the 1990s, there was a tendency of criticising various geographic terms current in the English language every bit Eurocentric, such as the traditional partitioning of Eurasia into Europe and Asia[xxx] or the term Middle Eastward.[31]

Eric Sheppard, in 2005, argued that contemporary Marxism itself has Eurocentric traits (in spite of "Eurocentrism" originating in the vocabulary of Marxian economics), because it supposes that the third earth must go through a phase of commercialism earlier "progressive social formations can exist envisioned".[3]

Andre Gunder Frank harshly criticised Eurocentrism. He believed that well-nigh scholars were the disciples of the social sciences and history guided by Eurocentrism.[four] He criticised some Western scholars for their ideas that non-Western areas lack outstanding contributions in history, economic system, ideology, politics and culture compared with the West.[32] These scholars believed that the same contribution made by the West gives Westerners an advantage of endo-genetic momentum which is pushed towards the residual of the world, simply Frank believed that the Oriental countries also contributed to the human civilisation in their own perspectives.

Arnold Toynbee in his A Written report of History, gave a disquisitional remark on Eurocentrism. He believed that although western capitalism shrouded the globe and achieved a political unity based on its economy, the Western countries cannot "westernize" other countries.[33] Toynbee concluded that Eurocentrism is characteristic of three misconceptions manifested past self-centerment, the fixed evolution of Oriental countries and linear progress.[34]

At that place has been some argue on whether historical Eurocentrism qualifies equally "just another ethnocentrism", as it is found in nigh of the world'south cultures, especially in cultures with imperial aspirations, equally in the Sinocentrism in Prc; in the Empire of Nihon (c. 1868–1945), or during the American Century. James M. Blaut (2000) argued that Eurocentrism indeed went beyond other ethnocentrisms, as the scale of European colonial expansion was historically unprecedented and resulted in the formation of a "colonizer's model of the world".[35]

Indigenous philosophies take been noted to profoundly contrast with Eurocentric thought. Indigenous scholar James (Sákéj) Youngblood Henderson states that Eurocentricism contrasts greatly with Ethnic worldviews: "the discord between Aboriginal and Eurocentric worldviews is dramatic. Information technology is a disharmonize betwixt natural and artificial contexts."[5] Indigenous scholars Norman G. Denzin and Yvonna S. Linco country that "in some ways, the epistemological critique initiated by Ethnic knowledge is more radical than other sociopolitical critiques of the West, for the Ethnic critique questions the very foundations of Western ways of knowing and existence."[36]

Academic discourse [edit]

The terms Afrocentrism vs. Eurocentrism have come up to play a role in the 2000s to 2010s in the context of the academic discourse on race in the United States and critical whiteness studies, aiming to expose white supremacism and white privilege.[37] Afrocentrist scholars, such as Molefi Asante, have argued that there is a prevalence of Eurocentric thought in the processing of much of academia on African affairs.[ citation needed ]

In dissimilarity, in an commodity, 'Eurocentrism and Academic Imperialism' by Professor Seyed Mohammad Marandi, from the University of Tehran, states that Eurocentric idea exists in virtually all aspects of academia in many parts of the earth, particularly in the humanities.[38] Edgar Alfred Bowring states that in the Due west, self-regard, self-congratulation and denigration of the 'Other' run more than securely and those tendencies have infected more than aspects of their thinking, laws and policy than anywhere else.[39] [40] Luke Clossey and Nicholas Guyatt take measured the degree of Eurocentrism in the research programs of summit history departments.[41]

Some authors have focused on how scholars who denounce Eurocentrism often inadvertently reproduce Eurocentrism.[42] [43] The methodologist Audrey Alejandro refers to this process every bit a "recursive paradox": "It is a methodo-epistemological recursive paradox that [International Relations] disquisitional scholars experience, producing a discourse that is implicitly counter-productive to the anti-Eurocentric values they abet."[44]

Latin America [edit]

Eurocentrism affected Latin America through colonial domination and expansion.[45] This occurred through the application of new criteria meant to "impose a new social classification of the world population on a global calibration".[45] Based on this occurrence, a new social-historic identities were newly produced, although already produced in America. Some of these names include; 'Whites', 'Negroes', 'Blacks', 'Yellows', 'Olives', 'Indians', and 'Mestizos'.[45] With the advantage of beingness located in the Atlantic basin, 'Whites' were in a privileged to command gold and silver production.[45] The piece of work which created the product was by 'Indians' and 'Negroes'.[45] With the control of commercial capital from 'White' workers. And therefore, Europe or Western Europe emerged as the central place of new patterns and capitalist power.[45]

Upshot on beauty standards in Brazil [edit]

Co-ordinate to Alexander Edmond's book Pretty Modern: Beauty, Sex, and Plastic Surgery in Brazil, whiteness plays a part in Latin American, specifically Brazilian, beauty standards, simply it is not necessarily distinguished based on peel colour.[46] Edmonds said the main ways to define whiteness in people in Brazil is past looking at their hair, nose, and then rima oris before because skin colour.[46] Edmonds focuses on the popularity of plastic surgery in Brazilian civilization. Plastic surgeons usually applaud and flatter mixtures when emulating aesthetics for performing surgery, and the more than popular mixture is African and European.[47] This shapes beauty standards by racialising biological and popular beauty ideals to suggest that mixture with whiteness is better.[46] Donna Goldstein's volume Laughter Out of Place: Race, Class, Violence, and Sexuality in a Rio Shantytown also addresses how whiteness influences beauty in Brazil. Goldstein notes that in Brazil, there is a hierarchy for dazzler that places beingness white at the top and blackness characteristics at the lesser, calling them ugly.[48]

Challenging these standards of beauty in Brazil would require society to "question the romantic and sexual appeal of whiteness."[48] Goldstein said as a consequence, blackness bodies would have to be decommodified, and black women in particular have had to commodify their bodies to survive.[48]

In Erica Lorraine William's Sexual practice Tourism in Bahia: Ambiguous Entanglements, Williams addresses how European and white beauty standards have more privileges than darker skinned and black women in Brazil.[49] Blackness women in Brazil have to strategise ways to receive more than respect in spaces pop for sex tourism.[49] Williams cites Alma Gulliermoprieto when she explains that there is a superiority given to light-skinned black women over darker-skinned black women equally low-cal-skinned women were considered more than beautiful because they were "improved with white blood."[fifty]

Islamic world [edit]

Eurocentrism's effect on the Islamic world has predominantly come from a fundamental statement of preventing the account of lower-level explanation and business relationship of Islamic cultures and their social development, mainly through eurocentrism'southward idealist construct.[51] This construct has gained ability from the historians revolving their conclusions effectually the thought of a central bespeak that favours the notion that the evolution of societies and their progress are dictated by full general tendencies, leading to the Islamic world's development becoming more of a philosophical topic of history instead of historical fact.[51] Along with this, eurocentrism extends to trivialise and marginalise the philosophies, scientific contributions, cultures, and other additional facets of the Islamic earth.[52]

Stemming from Eurocentrism's innate bias towards Western civilisation came the cosmos of the concept of the "European Society," which favoured the components (mainly Christianity) of European civilisation and immune eurocentrists to brand diverging societies and cultures equally "uncivilized."[53] Prevalent during the nineteenth century, the labelling of uncivilised in the optics of eurocentrists enabled Western countries to classify non-European and non-white countries as inferior, and limit their inclusion and contribution in actions like international law. This exclusion was seen as acceptable by individuals similar John Westlake, a professor of international constabulary at the University of Cambridge at the time, who commented that countries with European civilisations should exist who comprises the international society, and that countries like Turkey and Persia should just be allowed a part of international law.[53] The figurative superiority resulting from the rise of "European Culture" and the labels of "civilized" and "uncivilized" are partly responsible for eurocentrism'south deprival of Islamic social evolution, giving westerners the advantage of an early dismissal of such ideas regarding Oriental civilisations through comparisons to the West. Along with that, the rooted conventionalities of the inferiority of non-white and non-Europeans has given justification for racial discrimination and ignominy to the Islamic world, with much of these feelings nevertheless present today.[ commendation needed ]

Orientalism [edit]

Eurocentrism'south reach has non but afflicted the perception of the cultures and civilisations of the Islamic world, but besides the aspects and ideas of Orientalism, a cultural thought that distinguished the "Orient" of the Eastward from the "Occidental" Western societies of Europe and N America, and which was originally created so that the social and cultural milestones of the Islamic and Oriental world would be recognised. This effect began to accept place during the nineteenth century when the Orientalist ideals were distilled and shifted from topics of sensuality and deviating mentalities to what is described by Edward Said as "unchallenged coherence."[54] Forth with this shift came the creation of ii types of orientalism: latent, which covered the Orient'southward abiding immovability through history, and manifest, a more dynamic orientalism that changes with the new discovery of information.[54] The eurocentric influence is shown in the latter, as the nature of manifest Orientalism is to exist contradistinct with new findings, which leaves it vulnerable to the warping of its refiner'due south ideals and principles. In this state, eurocentrism has used orientalism to portray the Orient as "backwards" and bolster the superiority of the Western earth and continue the undermining of their cultures to further the agenda of racial inequality.[54]

With those wanting to represent the eurocentric ideals better by way of orientalism, in that location came a barrier of languages, being Standard arabic, Persian, and other similar languages. With more researchers wanting to study more of Orientalism, at that place was an supposition made most the languages of the Islamic world: that having the ability to transcribe the texts of the past Islamic world would give groovy knowledge and insight on oriental studies. In gild to do this, many researchers underwent grooming in philology, believing that an understanding of the languages would be the simply necessary preparation. This reasoning came as the conventionalities at the time was that other studies like anthropology and sociology were deemed irrelevant as they did not believe it misleading to this portion of mankind.[55] Through this action, eurocentric researchers' understanding of Oriental and Islamic culture was intentionally left undermined, foregoing the reasoning behind the deportment and reasoning for the changes in culture documented by Islamic and Oriental texts and allowing for further possible Western influence on orientalism, and increasing the difficulty of identifying what is truly Oriental and what is considered Oriental by the West.[ citation needed ]

In the dazzler industry [edit]

Eurocentrism has affected the beauty realm globally. The beauty standard has go Westernized and has influenced people throughout the earth. Many have altered their natural cocky to reflect this image.[56] Many beauty and advertising companies have redirected their products to support the thought of Eurocentrism.[57]

Kathy Deliovsky argues that "normative femininity is never signified outside a process of racial domination and negation" when looking at a society congenital on "European imperialism and colonialism."[58] White femininity, similar whiteness in general, is perceived as normative because it isn't viewed equally "white", merely simply every bit "femininity."[58] [ not-main source needed ]

A 1986 study by Pierre van den Berghe and Peter Frost found a widespread cultural preference for lighter skin in females.[59] Nonetheless, they argue that the preference for lightness often antedates European contact such as in the case of the Aztecs, the Japanese and the Ancient Egyptians, a strong preference for lightness is found fifty-fifty in societies that were never colonised past the West, and, even in areas colonised by Europe, preference for skin lightness is frequently accompanied by explicit rejection of European phenotypes.[59] Instead they suggest evolutionary explanations for the preference, noting neotenous traits may induce male investment and low-cal skin signals fertility.[59]

Clark doll experiment [edit]

In the 1940s, psychologists Kenneth and Mamie Clark conducted experiments chosen "the doll tests" to examine the psychological effects of segregation on African-American children. They tested children by presenting them four dolls, identical but different skin tone. They had to choose which doll they preferred and were asked the race of the doll. Well-nigh of the children chose the white doll. The Clark's stated in their results that the perception of the African-American children were altered by the bigotry they faced.[lx] The tested children as well labelled positive descriptions to the white dolls.

One of the criticisms of this experiment is presented past Robin Bernstein, a professor of African and African American studies and women, gender, and sexuality. Her argument is that "the Clarks' tests were scientifically flawed. Merely she said that the tests did reflect a negative portrayal of black dolls in American theater and media that dates back to the Ceremonious War era...." Thus, Bernstein said, the choices made past the subjects of the Clark doll tests was not necessarily an indication of black self-hatred. Instead, it was a cultural choice betwixt two different toys—one that was to exist loved and one that was to exist physically harassed, as exemplified in performance and popular media. Co-ordinate to Bernstein, this argument "redeems the Clarks' child subjects by offering a new understanding of them non as psychologically damaged dupes, but instead every bit agential experts in children'south civilization."[61]

Mexican doll experiment [edit]

In 2012, Mexicans recreated the doll test. United mexican states's National Quango to Foreclose Discrimination presented a video where children had to option the "adept doll," and the doll that looks like them. By doing this experiment, the researchers wanted to analyse the caste to which Mexican children are influenced by mod-solar day media attainable to them.[62] Most of the children chose the white doll; they also stated that information technology looked like them. The people who carried out the study noted that Eurocentrism is deeply rooted in different cultures, including Latin cultures.[63]

Dazzler advertisements [edit]

Advertisements shown throughout the world are Eurocentric and emphasise western characteristics.[ commendation needed ] European models are the primary pick of models to be hired by globally pop brands such as Estee Lauder and L'Oreal. Regional models in Korea, Hong Kong and Nippon take barely fabricated it to global brands' ads, compared to European models, who appear in 40-4 per cent of Korean and fifty-four per cent of Japanese ads. By appearing in these ads, they are emphasising that the ideal skin is bright, transparent, white, total, and fine. On the other paw, dark African peel is looked downward upon.[64]

Skin lightening [edit]

Pare lightening has get a common practice throughout different areas of the globe. 1 motivation for the utilize of skin lightening products is to look more 'European'.[65] In other cases, the practise began long before exposure to European dazzler standards – tan pare was associated with lower-class field work, and thus abiding exposure to sun, while having stake pare signified belonging to the upper-grade.[66] [67] Many women risk their health using these products to obtain the skintone they want. A study conducted past Dr Lamine Cissé observed the female population in some African countries. They establish that 26% of women were using skin lightening creams at the time and 36% had used them at some fourth dimension. The mutual products used were hydroquinone and corticosteroids. 75% of women who used these creams showed cutaneous agin effects.[68] Whitening products accept too go popular in many areas in Asia like South korea.[69] With the rise of these products, inquiry has been done to report the long term damage. Some complications experienced are exogenous ochronosis, dumb wound healing and wound dehiscence, the fish odour syndrome, nephropathy, steroid habit syndrome, predisposition to infections, a broad spectrum of cutaneous and endocrinologic complications of corticosteroids, and suppression of hypothalamic‐pituitary‐adrenal centrality.[seventy]

Republic of korea [edit]

Cosmetic surgery is pop in Republic of korea. Prevalence of cosmetic surgery in Republic of korea is not rooted in Western dazzler standards,[71] but is instead primarily due to other factors, such as more general dissatisfaction with appearance and better chances on the job marketplace.[72] [73] According to the International Order of Aesthetic Plastic Surgery, South korea has the highest rates of plastic surgery procedures per capita in 2014.[74] The most requested procedures are the blepharoplasty and rhinoplasty.[75] Some other process done in Korea is having the muscle under the tongue that connects to the lesser of the mouth surgically snipped. Parents have their children to undergo this surgery in order to pronounce English meliorate.[76]

See also [edit]

  • Afrocentrism
  • Americentrism
  • The Crest of the Peacock: Non-European Roots of Mathematics
  • The Eastern Origins of Western Civilisation
  • Hellenocentrism
  • History of Western civilisation
  • Orientalism
  • Pan-European identity
  • Universalism in geography
  • Western culture

References [edit]

Notes

  1. ^ Hobson, John (2012). The Eurocentric conception of world politics : western international theory, 1760-2010. New York: Cambridge Academy Printing. p. 185. ISBN978-1107020207.
  2. ^ Eurocentrism and its discontents, American Historical Clan
  3. ^ a b Sheppard, Eric (November 2005). "Jim Blaut'south Model of the World". Antipode. 37 (5): 956–962. doi:x.1111/j.0066-4812.2005.00544.ten.
  4. ^ a b Payne, Anthony (2005). "Unequal Development". The Global Politics of Diff Development. pp. 231–247. doi:10.1007/978-1-137-05592-7_9. ISBN978-0-333-74072-nine.
  5. ^ a b Youngblood Henderson, James (Sákéj) (2011). "Ayukpachi: Empowering Ancient Thought". In Battiste, Marie (ed.). Reclaiming Ethnic Vox and Vision. UBC Printing. pp. 259–61. ISBN9780774842471.
  6. ^ The German adjective europa-zentrisch ("Europe-centric") is attested in the 1920s, unrelated to the Marxist context of Amin'south usage. Karl Haushofer, Geopolitik des pazifischen Ozeans (pp. 11–23, 110-113, passim). The context is Haushofer'due south comparison of the "Pacific infinite" in terms of global politics vs. "Europe-centric" politics.
  7. ^ A Rey (ed.) Dictionnaire Historique de la langue française (2010): À partir du radical de européen ont été composés (mil. XXe s.) européocentrique adj. (de centrique) « qui fait référence à fifty'Europe » et européocentrisme due north.m. (variante europocentrisme due north.m. 1974) « fait de considérer (united nations problème général, mondial) d'un point de vue européen » ."
  8. ^ Hussein Abdilahi Bulhan, Frantz Fanon and the Psychology of Oppression (1985), 63ff: "Fanon and Eurocentric Psychology", where "Eurocentric psychology" refers to "a psychology derived from a white, center-class male minority, which is generalized to humanity everywhere".
  9. ^ "Anciens directeurs" (uneca.org) ("Samir AMIN (Egypte) 1970-1980").
  10. ^ Alexandre A. Bennigsen, S. Enders Wimbush , Muslim National Communism in the Soviet Spousal relationship: A Revolutionary Strategy for the Colonial World (1979), p. 19.
  11. ^ "pluralistic cultural coexistence as opposed to Western centrism and Asian centrism" (unhyphenated) in: Mabel Lee, Meng Hua, Cultural dialogue & misreading (1997), p. 53. "our incomplete perception of Chinese behavior, which tends to be 'Western-centric.'" (using scare-quotes) in: Houman A. Sadri, Revolutionary States, Leaders, and Foreign Relations: A Comparative Study of China, Republic of cuba, and Iran (1997), p. 35. "Euro- or western-centrism" in the context of the "traditional discourse on minority languages" in: Jonathan Owens (ed.), Standard arabic equally a Minority Linguistic communication (2000), p. one. Employ of Latinate occido-centrism remains rare (east.g. Alexander Lukin, Political Civilisation of the Russian 'Democrats' (2000), p. 47).
  12. ^ "[German: Obwohl Europa das kleinste unter allen iv. Teilen der Welt ist, and so ist es doch um verschiedener Ursachen willen allen übrigen vorzuziehen.... Dice Einwohner sind von sehr guten Sitten, höflich und sinnreich in Wissenschaften und Handwerken.] "Europa". In: Zedlers Universal-Lexicon Archived xi September 2011 at the Wayback Auto, Book 8, Leipzig 1734, columns 2192–2196 (citation: column 2195).
  13. ^ "[German language: [Europa ist seiner] terrestrischen Gliederung wie seiner kulturhistorischen und politischen Bedeutung nach unbedingt der wichtigste unter den fünf Erdtheilen, über die er in materieller, noch mehr aber in geistiger Beziehung eine höchst einflussreiche Oberherrschaft erlangt hat.] Das große Conversations-Dictionary für die gebildeten Stände, 1847. Vol. 1, p. 373.
  14. ^ Daniel Iwerks, "Ideology and Eurocentrism in Tarzan of the Apes," in: Investigating the Unliterary: Six Readings of Edgar Rice Burroughs' Tarzan of the Apes, ed. Richard Utz (Regensburg: Martzinek, 1995), pp. 69-xc.
  15. ^ Jones, Eric (2003). The European Miracle: Environments, Economies and Geopolitics in the History of Europe and Asia. ISBN978-0-521-52783-5.
  16. ^ de Boer, Karin (six June 2017). Moyar, Dean (ed.). "Hegel'south Lectures on the History of Modern Philosophy". Oxford Handbooks Online. 1. doi:x.1093/oxfordhb/9780199355228.013.29.
  17. ^ Iarocci, Michael P. (2006). Properties of Modernity: Romantic Spain, Modern Europe, and the Legacies of Empire. ISBN9780826515223.
  18. ^ Farmer, Edward 50. (1985). "Civilization as a Unit of measurement of World History: Eurasia and Europe'due south Place in Information technology". The History Teacher. 18 (3): 345–363. doi:10.2307/493055. JSTOR 493055.
  19. ^ Baker, Gideon (2013). "On the Origins of Modern Hospitality". Hospitality and World Politics. doi:10.1057/9781137290007.0006. ISBN9781137290007.
  20. ^ Bendix, Reinhard; Roth, Guenther (1980). Scholarship and partisanship : essays on Max Weber (California Library reprint series ed.). Berkeley: University of California Press, volume 110. ISBN978-0520041714. OCLC 220409196.
  21. ^ The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism. 3 July 2017. doi:10.4324/9781912282708. ISBN9781912282708. [ page needed ]
  22. ^ Marks, Robert (2015). The origins of the modern world: a global and environmental narrative from the fifteenth to the 20-get-go century (3rd ed.). Lanham, Maryland. ISBN9781442212398. OCLC 902726566. [ page needed ]
  23. ^ "Ukraine invasion: Arab journalists call out 'orientalist, racist' double standards on Ukraine coverage". The New Arab. London. 28 February 2022 [28 February 2022]. Retrieved one March 2022. Arab journalists take called out the 'racist, orientalist' news coverage on the war in Ukraine, which they've accused of Eurocentric bias and ignoring the reality of conflict for many in the Heart East and North Africa.
  24. ^ Cambridge History of China, CUP,1988
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External links [edit]

  • Critiques of Eurocentrism Bibliography
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